What is the difference between `INNER JOIN` and `LEFT JOIN`?

To back up a PostgreSQL database, use the `pg_dump` utility. For example, to back up a database named 'mydb', you would run `pg_dump mydb > mydb_backup.sql`. This creates a SQL file with the database structure and data. You can restore this backup using the `psql` command with `psql mydb < mydb_backup.sql`.

`SERIAL` and `BIGSERIAL` are PostgreSQL data types used for auto-incrementing integer columns. `SERIAL` creates an integer column that automatically increments with each new row, typically used for primary keys. `BIGSERIAL` is similar but uses a larger integer type to accommodate larger sequences of values. For example, `CREATE TABLE my_table (id SERIAL PRIMARY KEY);`.

To find duplicate rows, use a query with a `GROUP BY` clause and `HAVING` to identify duplicates. For instance: `SELECT column_name, COUNT(*) FROM table_name GROUP BY column_name HAVING COUNT(*) > 1;`. To remove duplicates, you might use a `DELETE` statement with a subquery. For example: `DELETE FROM table_name WHERE ctid NOT IN (SELECT MIN(ctid) FROM table_name GROUP BY column_name);`.

A CTE (Common Table Expression) is a temporary result set that you can reference within a `SELECT`, `INSERT`, `UPDATE`, or `DELETE` statement. Defined using the `WITH` clause, it can simplify complex queries by breaking them into more manageable parts. For example: `WITH dept_emp AS (SELECT * FROM employees WHERE dept_id = 1) SELECT * FROM dept_emp;`.

To create an index on multiple columns, use the `CREATE INDEX` statement and specify the columns separated by commas. For example, to create an index on the 'last_name' and 'first_name' columns of the 'employees' table, you would use `CREATE INDEX idx_name ON employees(last_name, first_name);`. Multi-column indexes can speed up queries that filter on these columns together.

Transactions in PostgreSQL are managed using the `BEGIN`, `COMMIT`, and `ROLLBACK` commands. Start a transaction with `BEGIN`, execute your SQL commands, and if everything is correct, save changes with `COMMIT`. If there’s an error or you wish to discard changes, use `ROLLBACK`. For instance: `BEGIN; UPDATE employees SET salary = salary * 1.1; COMMIT;`.

PostgreSQL table constraints are rules applied to columns or tables to enforce data integrity. Common constraints include `PRIMARY KEY` (ensures unique identifiers), `FOREIGN KEY` (enforces referential integrity), `UNIQUE` (ensures all values in a column are unique), and `CHECK` (validates data against a condition). For example, `ALTER TABLE my_table ADD CONSTRAINT chk_age CHECK (age > 0);`.

`EXISTS` is used in SQL to test for the existence of rows returned by a subquery. It returns `TRUE` if the subquery returns one or more rows and `FALSE` otherwise. For example: `SELECT * FROM employees WHERE EXISTS (SELECT 1 FROM departments WHERE departments.dept_id = employees.dept_id);` checks if there are corresponding departments for employees.

`INNER JOIN` returns rows where there is a match in both joined tables, while `LEFT JOIN` (or `LEFT OUTER JOIN`) returns all rows from the left table and matched rows from the right table. If there’s no match, NULL values are returned for the right table's columns. For example: `SELECT * FROM a INNER JOIN b ON a.id = b.a_id;` versus `SELECT * FROM a LEFT JOIN b ON a.id = b.a_id;`.

To create a function in PostgreSQL, use the `CREATE FUNCTION` statement along with PL/pgSQL or another procedural language. For example: `CREATE FUNCTION get_employee_name(emp_id INT) RETURNS TEXT AS $$ BEGIN RETURN (SELECT name FROM employees WHERE id = emp_id); END; $$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;`. Use the function by calling `SELECT get_employee_name(1);`.

To restore a PostgreSQL database from a backup created by `pg_dump`, use the `psql` command for SQL backups or `pg_restore` for custom format backups. For a SQL backup, use `psql database_name < backup_file.sql`. For a custom format backup, use `pg_restore -d database_name backup_file.dump`. Ensure the database exists before restoring.

To manage user roles and permissions in PostgreSQL, use the `CREATE ROLE` and `GRANT` statements. Create a role with `CREATE ROLE role_name;`, and grant permissions with `GRANT privilege_type ON object TO role_name;`. For example, to grant SELECT permission on the 'employees' table to a role 'data_reader', use `GRANT SELECT ON employees TO data_reader;`.

`UNION` combines the results of two queries and removes duplicate rows, while `UNION ALL` combines results including duplicates. For example, `SELECT column FROM table1 UNION SELECT column FROM table2;` removes duplicates, whereas `SELECT column FROM table1 UNION ALL SELECT column FROM table2;` includes all rows from both queries.

Schemas in PostgreSQL are namespaces that allow you to organize and group database objects like tables, views, and functions. Each schema can contain its own set of objects, and you can refer to these objects with a schema-qualified name. For example, to create a schema and a table within it, you might use `CREATE SCHEMA sales; CREATE TABLE sales.orders (id SERIAL PRIMARY KEY, order_date DATE);`.

Database migration in PostgreSQL involves moving or altering database schema and data. Tools like `pg_dump` and `pg_restore` can be used to backup and restore data. For more complex migrations, tools like Flyway or Liquibase are useful. You might use `pg_dump` to create a backup: `pg_dump mydb > mydb_backup.sql`, and `pg_restore` to apply it to a new database. Make sure to test migrations in a staging environment before applying them to production.

To create a trigger in PostgreSQL, first define a function that performs the desired action. Then, use the `CREATE TRIGGER` statement to bind this function to a table event. For example: `CREATE FUNCTION log_update() RETURNS TRIGGER AS $$ BEGIN INSERT INTO log_table (table_name, changed_at) VALUES ('employees', CURRENT_TIMESTAMP); RETURN NEW; END; $$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;` and `CREATE TRIGGER trg_log_update AFTER UPDATE ON employees FOR EACH ROW EXECUTE FUNCTION log_update();`.

A materialized view in PostgreSQL is a database object that stores the result of a query physically. It improves performance by precomputing and storing complex query results. To create a materialized view, use `CREATE MATERIALIZED VIEW view_name AS SELECT ...;`. You can refresh the view to update its data with `REFRESH MATERIALIZED VIEW view_name;`. This is useful for scenarios where query performance is critical, and the underlying data doesn’t change frequently.

`pg_stat_activity` is a system view in PostgreSQL that provides information about the currently active database connections. It shows details such as process IDs, query texts, and connection states. For example, you can query `SELECT * FROM pg_stat_activity;` to see active queries and session states, which is useful for diagnosing performance issues or monitoring database activity.

`pgAdmin` is a popular graphical user interface tool for managing PostgreSQL databases. It allows users to perform tasks like creating and modifying tables, running queries, and managing database objects through a user-friendly interface. To use `pgAdmin`, download and install it, then connect to your PostgreSQL server. You can use its features to interact with the database, visualize query plans, and manage your schema.

PostgreSQL offers full-text search capabilities using `tsvector` and `tsquery` data types. To perform a full-text search, first create a `tsvector` column and populate it with data. For example: `ALTER TABLE my_table ADD COLUMN document_with_idx tsvector; UPDATE my_table SET document_with_idx = to_tsvector('english', document);`. Then, search using `SELECT * FROM my_table WHERE document_with_idx @@ to_tsquery('english', 'search_query');`.

PostgreSQL supports JSON and JSONB data types for storing JSON data. JSONB is a binary format that allows for faster processing. You can query JSON data using operators and functions. For example, to store JSON data, use `CREATE TABLE my_table (data JSONB);`. To query a JSON field, you might use `SELECT data->>'key' FROM my_table WHERE data->>'key' = 'value';`.

`EXPLAIN` is a command used to analyze and understand how PostgreSQL executes a query. It provides details about the query execution plan, including which indexes are used and the estimated cost of different operations. For example, running `EXPLAIN SELECT * FROM employees WHERE id = 1;` will show you the query plan and help identify performance bottlenecks or inefficiencies in your SQL queries.

In PostgreSQL, large objects (LOBs) are handled using the `pg_largeobject` system catalog and associated functions. You can store large objects like files or images using `lo_create()`, `lo_write()`, and `lo_read()` functions. For example, to store a file: `SELECT lo_create(0);` to create a new large object, and then use `lo_write()` to write data. You can retrieve it with `lo_read()` and manage large objects using the `pg_largeobject` catalog.

Table partitioning in PostgreSQL is used to divide a large table into smaller, more manageable pieces. You can implement partitioning using range, list, or hash methods. For example, to create a range-partitioned table by year, first create the parent table: `CREATE TABLE sales (id SERIAL PRIMARY KEY, sale_date DATE) PARTITION BY RANGE (sale_date);`. Then, create partitions for each range: `CREATE TABLE sales_2023 PARTITION OF sales FOR VALUES FROM ('2023-01-01') TO ('2024-01-01');`.

PostgreSQL extensions add additional functionality to the database system. You can install extensions using the `CREATE EXTENSION` command. For example, to install the `pg_trgm` extension for trigram-based text search, use `CREATE EXTENSION pg_trgm;`. Extensions can be managed via the `pg_extension` catalog. Some extensions come with PostgreSQL distributions, while others may need to be downloaded and installed separately.